Training
In Evans’ book Horses it says the following, “Behavior is a combination of both genetics and environment.” (Evans, 2001, p. 275) It goes on to say that, “Horse training deals with the modification of behavior….The behavior must be modified progressively to achieve a desirable performance. At this point the genetic potential of the horse has already been determined, and the horse should be capable of reaching the desired level of performance. What the trainer has to manipulate is the environment.”
Terms
1. Stimuli: something that causes a response
Stimulus is generally know as a cue and is generally something unnatural to the horse so it must be learned.
2. Response: reaction to the stimuli
This is how the horse responds, moves, or acts. Training means to teach the horse to give the desired response. Responses should be thought of as small segments that when put together add up to something bigger.
3. Basic Cues: closest to being natural
These cues are closet to what the horse knows and basically shows the horse what to do. If these are all a horse ever learns he will not know much at all. The rider must have good horsemanship because if they are giving contradictory cues or bouncing everywhere, the horse can’t be expected to know which cues to follow.
4. Primary Reinforcement: reinforce with something a horse already knows (feed, run away).
They will naturally appreciate these things so it can be used to strengthen good behavior.
5. Secondary Reinforcement: it follows P.R. and is learned.
They learn a pat or a scratch on the neck is a good thing. These take time for the horse to learn.
6. Positive Reinforcement: the appearance of or increase of the intensity of a stimulus you “add”
7. Negative Reinforcement: removal of or decrease in the stimulus when the desired response is given. (Positive and Negative Reinforcement both strengthen behavior)
8. Punishment: a stimulus without a cue
This happens when a horse makes a response when no cue was given. This is used a lot to break bad vices or habits in horses. How intense to make the punishment depends on the horse. If you have a disrespectful and pushy horse that keeps nibbling and attempting to bite, a smack might fix the problem but if the horse is already scared to death and has no confidence, a smack will only destroy any confidence it has built around you.
9. Escape: no cue and independent of what the horse is doing
“When a spur is pushed into a horse’s ribs to get it to move, the horse is making an escape response that will result in the spur being removed.” (Evans, 2001, p. 279)
10. Avoidance: a cue is given and if the response is correct there is no punishment but if it is incorrect then it is followed up by aversive stimuli.
This is the method used most in horse training. Well trained horses that act of almost invisible cues are simply making avoidance responses. They have learned to make the correct response on cue. A horse moves from a little leg pressure because if they don’t it will be followed by a hard kick. The same is true of neck reining. The horse learns that when they move away from the pressure of the rein on their neck, they avoid the direct rein on their mouth that is always there.
11. Schedule of Reinforcement:
Contingent: “For any reinforcement to be most effective, it must be contingent; that is, it must be given immediately with relation to the response….Contingent punishment enables a horse to know what response is being punished, whereas non-contingent punishment will cause horses to have a general fear, and all behavior will be abnormal….It would be more effective to administer no punishment at all than to administer non-contingent punishment.” (Evans, 2001, p. 280)
Extinction: This is part of everything but sort of means that when the cues are given with no reinforcement the learned responses will weaken and soon the horse will make no correct responses.
Acquisition: The early training stage when all behavior is being taught for the first time. In this stage the trainer is continually rewarding or punishing the horse for every response it makes to the cues.
Intermittent: This is when a trained horse is not reinforced after every response but on irregular intervals. This is a well trained horse.
12. Shaping: “The psychological term analogous to training is shaping. This means that behavior is shaped by reinforcing each successive approximation of the desired response. Trainers use different techniques, but each will try to get a horse to first do something similar to the desired response and will progressively reinforce more desirable behavior. The importance of recognizing small responses is paramount at this point. The trainer must recognize and be able to apply reinforcement to these small responses as he or she builds up to greater things.” (Evans, 2001, p. 282)
Training Periods: In the first part of training it may be necessary to fatigue the horse a little to get control but to enhance the learning after this point it is best to use shorter periods of training. If the horse is overworked its learning rate will decrease. This doesn’t mean that riding for long periods is bad but just that the training is spread throughout with a few minutes here and there with periods of rest or simply riding.
Conformation
The definition of conformation in Horses by J. Warren Evans is as follows, “The conformation, or physical structure, of a horse is related to the performance potential in that the relationships of the parts determine the way in which a horse moves. Different conformation types are suited to different types of performance. Variations of desired conformation are personal preferences in many respects, but there is a basic conformation that is desired for the light horse.” (Evans, 2001)
Before you can really assess the conformation and structure of a horse you must be educated on the basic conformation, anatomy, and points of the horse.
Anatomy
Points of the Horse
Skeletal Structure
1 Incisive bone (premaxillary) | 2 Nasal bone | 3 Maxillary bone | 4 Mandible |
5 Orbit | 6 Frontal bone | 7 Temporal fossa | 8 Atlas (first cervical vertebra) |
9 Axis (2nd cervical vertebra | 10 Cervical vertebrae (7 inc. Atlas and Axis) | 11 Scapular spine | 12 Scapular cartilage |
13 Scapula | 14 Thoracic vertebrae (18 of these) | 15 Lumbar vertebrae (6 of these) | 16 Tuber sacrale |
17 Sacral vertebrae (5 fused together - sacrum) | 18 Coccygeal vertebrae | 19 Shoulder joint | 20 Ribs (18) |
21 Costal arch | 22 Tuber coxae | 23 Ilium | 24 Pubis |
25 Hip joint | 26 Femur (greater trochanter) | 27 Tuber ischii | 28 Ischium |
29 Femur, third trochanter | 30 Femur | 31 Humerla tuberosity, lateral | 32 Humerus |
33 Sternum | 34 Olecranon | 35 Costal cartilages | 36 Femoral trochlea |
37 Stifle joint | 38 Patella | 39 Elbow joint | 40 Ulna |
41 Radius | 42 CArpus | 43 Metacarpus | 44 Fetlock joint |
45 Coffin joint | 46 Accessory carpal bone | 47 Small metarcarpal bone (splint bone) | 48 Proximal sesamoid |
49 First phalanx | 50 Distal phalanx | 51 Tibia | 52 Talus (tibial tarsas bone) |
53 Small Metatarsal (splint bone) | 54 Metatarsus | 55 Pastern joint | 56 Fibula |
57 Calcaneus (fibular tarsal) | 58 Tarsus | 59 Middle Phalanx (2nd phalanx) |
Spine. Cervical Vertebrae- There a seven locking vertebrae in the neck. The first vertebrae is known as the atlas and it is a rotational joint that allows the head of the horse to move up and down. The second vertebrae is known as the axis and it allows the head of the horse to move side to side.
Thoracic vertebrae is next and there are eighteen vertebrae in this section. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th, are at the withers and this is what you sit on when riding.
The lumbar section next and there are six vertebrae in this group. There is a junction between the lumbar and sacral sections called the lumbar sacral junction. This is where the most movement and motion takes place (when a horse stops, runs, etc.)
The coccygeal section consists of a varying 18-22 vertebrae depending on the horse.
Pelvis. In the pelvis there are three points you can feel on the outside of the horse: the tuber sacrale is the highest point, the tuber Ischia is in the butt, and the tuber coxae is in the side.
The sacral section consists of five vertebrae that are fused together
Legs. About 80% of the unsoundness in horses occur in the front limbs. 85% of these will be in the knee or below the knee. Since horses carry 60% of their weight on their front limbs, it is extremely important to have correct conformation and structure of the front limbs. Healing cuts and bruises below the knee or hock is very difficult because of the lack of muscles and blood supply.
The cannon bone should be short because it will strengthen the horses stability and length of stride. The pasterns should be long and sloping, but not too long. The slope of the pasterns and the hoof wall should be continuous.
Feet. The feet are one of the main concussion absorbing devices. It is important that they are not too small or they will just have more unnecessary wear.
Head. A roman nose can adjust the way a horse sees. They have a bigger blind spot in front of them but a smaller one behind them. It inhibits their depth perception as well.
With either unsoundness, the overshot (parrot mouth) and undershot jaw, the horse will have difficulty eating and is believed to be genetic.
Shoulders. The ideal shoulder slope is 45 degrees but is rarely seen. This angle should be parallel to the pastern angle. The reason it should be close to 45 is because that is between 0-90 and has the best range of motion. A smaller angle means a longer range but a larger angle means a shorter range of motion.
Blemishes/Unsoundness’s. A blemish is an injury or imperfection that could possibly affect the horses value but not their usefulness. An unsoundness is an injury or abnormality that effects the horses usability and ability to perform.
Diseases
Disease is defined as anything abnormal, out of the ordinary, irregular, or unusual.
Common Horse Diseases:
An infectious disease in a horse is one that the horses get from each other or is transmitted from a vector such as a mosquito. A horse can be vaccinated against many of these diseases.
Anthrax- “Anthrax in horses is usually acute, and clinical signs depend on route of exposure. If ingested, clinical signs include loss of appetite, colic, enteritis, fever, trembling depression, and bloody diarrhea. Death usually occurs within 48 to 96 hours. Anthrax introduced by means of an insect bite often results in subcutaneous swelling at the site of the bite, followed by swelling of the neck, sternum, ventral abdomen, and genitals.” Retrieved from http://www.avma.org/public_health/biosecurity/anthrax_facts.asp
Botulism- This is a very toxic bacteria and death rates in horses not treated is 70-90%. Symptoms include “loss of tail and tongue tone, inability to swallow, weakened gait, decreased eyelid tone, decreased bowel sounds, sweating, shaking forelegs, colic, and bloating” (Evans, 2001, p. 381) . In young foals the disease is called “shaker foal syndrome”.
Tetanus (Lockjaw)- This is a bacterial infection that thrives in the absence of light and oxygen so it likes wounds. It is in most soils and can stay dormant for years. Once introduced into a wound it affects the nervous system causing symptoms such as stiffness in the legs, stumbling, and eventually the inability to walk or stand. Few horses ever recover so prevention is key.
Equine Encephalomyelitis (sleeping sickness)- This disease is caused by several different viruses that are transmitted mostly by mosquitoes but also by birds and rodents. It results in the degeneration of the brain’s system. Symptoms include a high fever, restlessness, drowsiness, droopy ears, and brain lesions form. The death rate is 70-90% and there is no treatment for the disease but just in the prevention of vaccines. Any survivors are usually useless because of the brain damage.
Equine Infectious Anemia- This is a viral disease and the commonly known test given to detect an infected horse is the Coggins test. Some symptoms are a very high fever, loss of appetite, weak, fluid (edema) sometimes collects under the skin. There is no treatment for the disease. It is carried mostly by horse flies and contaminated syringes.
Equine Influenza- This is a virus and symptoms may include a fever, runny nose, loss of appetite, cough, and depression. It is not fatal but is commonly spread at large gatherings of horses and is transmitted by water droplets in the air. So horses can pick it up on troughs and feed mangers easily. This is generally not deadly.
Equine Herpesvirus (rhinopneumonitis, rhino, viral abortion)- This is a viral infection and there are four different strains of it. EHV-1 will cause abortions. Will cause ataxia (inability to walk or stand) because it attacks the nervous system. There is only a vaccine for two of the four strains.
Lyme Disease- It comes from ticks and symptoms may include lameness, loss of appetite, swelling, and fever. Best controlled by insecticide.
Pneumonia- This refers to any lung inflammation and can be either viral or bacterial or both. Symptoms can be fever, nasal discharge, cough, difficult breathing, and congestion.
West Nile Virus- “Horses get WNV by being bitten by an infected mosquito; most horses do not show any signs and recover on their own, but in some horses the infection affects the central nervous system and causes signs including fever, weakness or paralysis of the hind limbs, impaired vision, lack of coordination, head pressing, convulsions, inability to swallow, and coma.” Retrieved from: http://www.drsfostersmith.com/pic/article.cfm?aid=1571
Rabies- In problem areas where this is common horses should be vaccinated. The symptoms are personality change, viciousness, inability to swallow, loss of appetite, and incoordination.
Strangles (shipping fever or distemper)- This is a bacterial infection that causes the lymph glands in the jaw and throat to swell. Nasal discharge, cough, and fever are common signs. Once the bacteria is present it is hard to get rid of. You can vaccinate against strangles but treatment is penicillin.
Potomac Horse Fever- This really only shows up in areas that have problems with ticks because that is how it is transmitted. Symptoms include refusal to feed, mild fever, and depression.
S.O.A.P.
S- subjective- these consist of subjective observations such things as the history or previous health or feeding records.
O- objective observations would be ones you like their temperature, pulse, and rate and things you can see. These can be measured and are pretty much for sure.
A- assessment is the part where you assess all the information you’ve gathered and try and come up with several possible diagnosis’s.
P- plan is where you lay out what should be done and any more tests or labs that need to be run.
S.O.A.P.s are a very useful way of laying out important information. It gives it good order and helps you diagnose the possible problems.
Parasites
In the book Horses by Evans, he explains parasites, “Parasites a small organisms that live on or in a host organism and derive their food from it. Parasites can be beneficial or detrimental to the horse. Our primary management concern is to control harmful parasites, which can lower efficiency, performance, and digestion and even kill a horse….Typical symptoms are weakness, unthrifty appearance (poor body condition), emaciation, “pot-belly” (large, distended abdomen), tucked-up flanks, rough hair coat, and slow growth.” (Evans, 2001, p. 354)
In horses there are two main groups of parasites: internal parasites and external parasites. Internal parasites spend a good part of their lifecycle in their host and external parasites live on and get their food from their host. The basic lifecycle of internal parasites is as follows: the horse swallows the eggs on infected grass, feed, or water. Then the larvae migrate through the body varying just where and what they do depending on the specie of parasite. The parasite develops lays more eggs which come out in the manure and their cycle starts again. The egg, larvae, and parasite spend varying amounts of time in each stage.
Here are some common External Parasites: ticks, lice, mites, chiggers, gnats, mosquitoes, and flies. These parasites do everything from just being annoying to transmitting internal parasites to being a vector for carrying diseases from horse to horse.
Controlling Parasites
They recommend de-worming any new horses on arrival and mares before they foal. Also periodically examine your horses feces for an over abundance in worms. Some management practices for controlling parasites are as follows: try and feed in troughs and mangers rather than the ground, water should be clean and uncontaminated, keep manure removed from stalls, and try and keep more space available per horse so the horses can forage and not be eating contaminated feed all the time.
Some recommend only de-worming horses when the horse needs it because the worms can build immunity against the de-wormers and then nothing works. Rotating the worming medicine can help with this. It is also recommended to worm your horse 3-4 times per year in the spring after it warms up so you interrupt their lifecycle and in the fall after it freezes.
It can be dangerous to give a very worm infested horse a full dosage of medicine because when all the worms die it will cause impaction of dead worms in the horse’s stomach and intestines causing colic. If you have a very worm infested horse, it is best to stagger the doses of wormer so you don’t cause the impaction of dead worms. You don’t want to kill them all at once is such a horse.
Drugs:
IVEREASE- put in feed
IVERMECTIN- paste in mouth
Predominant Internal Parasites:
Parasite: Large strongyles (Bloodworms). Location: Adults in large bowel; larvae in abdominal organs. Damage: Most harmful. Larvae block blood vessels and cause tissue damage. May be lethal.
Parasite: Small strongyles. Location: Large bowel. Damage: Irritation of intestinal wall; scours in foals.
Parasite: Large roundworms. Location: Small intestine; larvae migrate through lungs. Damage: Intestinal irritation and obstruction; migrating larvae damage lung tissue.
Parasite: Threadworms. Location: Small intestine. Damage: Diarrhea and weight loss (foals); irritation of bowel.
Parasite: Pinworms. Location: Large bowel. Damage: Restlessness; dullness.
Parasite: Bots. Location: Stomach. Damage: Gut inflammation; unthriftiness
References
